Series, Real, Second-Order Sections

Converting the difference equation $y(n) = x(n) + 0.5^3 x(n-3) - 0.9^5 y(n-5)$ to a series bank of real first- and second-order sections is comparatively easy. In this case, we do not need a full blown partial fraction expansion. Instead, we need only factor the numerator and denominator of the transfer function into first- and/or second-order terms. Since a second-order section can accommodate up to two poles and two zeros, we must decide how to group pairs of poles with pairs of zeros. Furthermore, since the series sections can be implemented in any order, we must choose the section ordering. Both of these choices are normally driven in practice by numerical considerations. In fixed-point implementations, the poles and zeros are grouped such that dynamic range requirements are minimized. Similarly, the section order is chosen so that the intermediate signals are well scaled. For example, internal overflow is more likely if all of the large-gain sections appear before the low-gain sections. On the other hand, the signal-to-quantization-noise ratio will deteriorate if all of the low-gain sections are placed before the higher-gain sections. For further reading on numerical considerations for digital filter sections, see, e.g., [103].